Wilderness and Residential Treatment programs provide therapeutic interventions for individuals, often adolescents, struggling with behavioral, emotional, or substance use issues.
These programs combine outdoor experiences with structured therapeutic activities, promoting personal growth, resilience, and teamwork in a supportive environment. By immersing participants in nature and community living, they aim to facilitate healing and self-discovery while addressing underlying challenges.
Publications
Eastabrook, J. M., Mills, L., & Singh, A. (2024). Symptom trajectories of youth in live-in treatment facilities before, during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Residential Treatment For Children & Youth. Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2024.2319751
Lown, E. A., Otto, H. R., Norton, C. L., Jong, M. C., & Jong, M. (2023). Program evaluation of a wilderness experience for adolescents facing cancer: A time in nature to heal, connect and find strength. PLOS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291856
Bettmann, J. E., Martinez-Gutierrez, N., Esrig, R., Blumenthal, E., & Mills, L. (2023). Who declines and who improves in wilderness therapy? Child & Youth Care Forum, Advanced Online Publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-023-09781-6
Tucker, A. R., DeMille, S., Newman, T., Polachi Atanasova, C., Bryan, P., Keefe, M., & Smitherman, L. (2023). How adolescents view the role of the wilderness in wilderness therapy: “I am in the middle of nowhere and that is okay”. Children and Youth Services Review, 153, 107045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2023.107045
Gass, M. A., Hardy, C., Norton, C. L., & Keefe, M. (2022). Involuntary Youth Transportation (IYT) to treatment programs: Best practices, research, ethics, and future applications. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 39, 291–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-021-00801-9
Mills, L., Hall, J., Ridenour, A., & Murphy, M. (2022). The importance of parent engagement in Outdoor Behavioral Health programs for youth. Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 14, 150-169.
Tucker, A. R., Norton, C. L., DeMille, S., Talbot, B., & Keefe, M. (2022). Chapter 25: Wilderness programs. In J. Loeffler, & E. Frazier (Eds.) Handbook of evidence-based day treatment programs for children and adolescents (pp. 375-393). Springer.
Kelly, E., & Mills, L. (2020). On being a treatment detective: How progress monitoring offers clues to treatment mysteries. Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 12, 13-27.
DeMille, S., Tucker, A. R., Gass, M. A., Javorski, S., VanKanegan, C., Talbot, B., & Karoff, M. (2018). The effectiveness of Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare with struggling adolescents: A comparison group study. Child and Youth Service Review, 88, 241-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.03.015
Riddell, J. K., Barnes, M. E., Mills, L., Creighton, V., Pepler, D. J. (2018). Better relationships, mental wellness and self-development. What parents expect from residential treatment for their struggling youth. Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 10, 186-212.
Russell, K. C., Gillis, H. L. & Harvey, J. D. (2018). An evaluation of Alaska Crossings: Comparison of the client status review and the Youth Outcome Questionnaire. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 10(1), 127-154.
Tucker, A. R., Combs, K. M., Bettman, J., Chang, T., Graham, S., Hoag, M., & Tatum, C. (2018). Longitudinal outcomes for youth transported to wilderness therapy programs. Research on Social Work Practice, 29(4), 438-451. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731516647486 .
Gabrielsen, L. E., & Harper, N. J. (2017). The role of wilderness therapy for adolescents in the face of global trends of urbanization and technification. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2017.1406379
Norton, C. L., & Peyton, J. (2017). Mindfulness-based practice in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 9(1), 7-20.
Becker, S., & Russell, K. C. (2016). Wilderness therapy for adolescents. In, R. J. R. Levesque (Ed.), Encyclopedia of adolescence (2nd ed.). Springer Books.
Bettmann, J. E., Gillis, H. L., Speelman, E. A., Parry, K. J., & Case, J. M. (2016). A meta-analysis of wilderness therapy outcomes for private pay clients. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(9), 2659-2673. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/s10826-016-0439-0
Combs, K. M. (2016). What does it take to get post-discharge data? Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 8(1), 18-23.
Combs, K. M., Hoag, M., Javorski, S., & Roberts, S. (2016). Adolescent self-assessment of an Outdoor Behavioral Health program: longitudinal outcomes and trajectories of change. Journal of Child and Family Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0497-3
Gillis, H. L., Speelman, E., Linville, N., Bailey, E., Kalle, A., Oglesbee, N., Sandlin, J., Thompson, L., & Jensen, J. (2016). Meta-analysis of treatment outcomes measured by the Y-OQ and Y-OQ-SR comparing wilderness and non-wilderness treatment programs. Child & Youth Care Forum, 45(6), 851-863. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-016-9360-3
Hoag, M. J., Combs, K. M., & Roberts, S. D. (2016). Pushing beyond outcome: What else changes in wilderness therapy? Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 8(1), 45-56.
Massey, K., Hoag, M., Roberts, S., & Javorski, S. (2016). A multilevel model to examine adolescent outcomes in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare: The parent perspective. Child and Youth Care Forum, 45, 353- 365. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-015-9331-0
Bettmann, J. E., Clarkson Freeman, P., & Parry, K., (2015). Differences between adopted and non-adopted adolescents in wilderness and residential treatment. The Journal of Experiential Education, 38, 245-261. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825915569056.
DeMille, S. M. & Burdict, M. (2015). A theoretically anchored and multi-modal treatment approach in an Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare program. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 7(1), 19-30.
Tucker, A. R., Bettmann, J., Norton, C. L., & Comart, C. (2015). The role of transport use in adolescent wilderness treatment: Its relationship to readiness to change and outcome. Child and Youth Care Forum, 44, 671-686. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-015-9301-6
Tucker, A. R., Smith, A., & Gass, M. A. (2014). The impact of presenting problems and individual client characteristics on treatment outcomes in residential and wilderness treatment programs. Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 31(2), 135-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2014.918446
Hoag, M. J., Massey, K. M., Roberts, S., (2014). Dissecting the wilderness therapy client: Examining clinical trends, findings, and industry patterns. Journal of Experiential Education, 37(4), 382-396. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825914540837
Zelov, R., Tucker, A. R., & Javorksi, S. (2013). A new phase for the NATSAP PRN: Post-discharge reporting and transition to the network wide utilization of the Y-OQ 2.0. Journal of Therapeutic Schools & Programs, 6(1), 7-19.
Magle-Haberek, N., Tucker, A. R., & Gass, M. A. (2012). The effects of program differences within wilderness therapy and residential treatment center (RTC) programs. Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 29(3), 202-218. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2012.697433
Bettmann, J. E., Lundahl, B. W., Wright, R. A., Jasperson, R. A., & McRoberts, C. (2011). Who are they? A descriptive study of adolescents in wilderness and residential programs. Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 28(3), 198-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2011.596735.
Bettmann, J. E., Olson-Morrison, D., & Jasperson, R. A. (2011). Adolescents in wilderness treatment: A qualitative study of attachment relationships. Journal of Experiential Education, 34(2), 176-194. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382591103400206
Bettmann, J. E., & Tucker, A. R. (2011). Shifts in attachment relationships: A study of adolescents in wilderness treatment. Child and Youth Care Forum, 40(6), 499-519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-011-9146-6
Norton, C. L. (2011). Wilderness therapy: Creating a context of hope. In C. L. Norton (Ed.), Innovative interventions in child and adolescent mental health (pp. 66-140). Routledge.
Walsh, M., & Russell. K. C. (2011). An exploratory study of a wilderness adventure program for young offenders. Ecopsychology, 2, 211-229. https://doi.org/10.1089/eco.2010.0035
Norton, C. L. (2010). Into the wilderness—A case study: The psychodynamics of adolescent depression and the need for a holistic intervention. Clinical Social Work Journal, 38(2), 226-235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-009-0205-5
Norton, C. L. (2010). Exploring the process of a therapeutic wilderness experience: Key therapeutic components in the treatment of adolescent depression and psychosocial development. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 4(1), 24-46.
Bettmann, J. E., Demong, E., & Jasperson, R. A. (2008). Treating adolescents with attachment and adoption issues in wilderness therapy settings. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 3(1), 117-138.
Bettmann, J. E., & Jasperson, R. A. (2008). Adults in wilderness treatment: A unique application of attachment theory and research. Clinical Social Work Journal, 36(1), 51-61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10615-007-0134-0
Gillis, H. L., Gass, M. A., & Russell, K. C. (2008). The effectiveness of Project Adventure’s behavior management program for male offenders in residential treatment. Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 25, 227-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/08865710802429689
Norton, C. L. (2008). Understanding the impact of wilderness therapy on adolescent depression and psychosocial development. Illinois Child Welfare, 4(1), 166-178. https://kb.osu.edu/bitstream/handle/1811/36779/2/21_4norton_paper.pdf
Russell, K. C., Gillis, H. L., & Lewis, T. G. (2008). A five-year follow-up of a nationwide survey of outdoor behavioral healthcare programs. Journal of Experiential Education, 31, 55-77. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590803100106
Bettmann, J. E. (2007). Changes in adolescent attachment relationships as a response to wilderness treatment. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 55(1), 259-265. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00030651070550010103
Russell, K. C. (2006). Brat camps, boot camps, or….? Exploring wilderness therapy program theory. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 6, 51-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729670685200741
Russell, K. C. (2006). Evaluating the effects of the Wendigo Lake Expedition program for young offenders. Journal of Juvenile Justice and Youth Violence,4, 185-203.
https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1541204006286317
Russell, K. C. (2005). Two years later: A qualitative assessment of youth well-being and the role of aftercare in Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare treatment. Child and Youth Care Forum, 34, 209-239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-005-3470-7
Curtis, A., Briggs, J., & Behrens, E. (2018). Young adults in residential treatment and outdoor behavioral health programs: Preliminary outcomes from the Practice Research Network of the National Association of Therapeutic Schools and Programs. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 10, 65-91.
Bettmann, J. E., Tucker, A. R., Behrens, E., & Vanderloo, M. (2017). Changes in older adolescents and young adults’ attachment, separation, and mental health during wilderness therapy. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(2), 511-522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0577-4
Roberts, S., Stroud, D., Hoag, M. J., & Massey, K. (2017). Outdoor behavioral healthcare: A longitudinal assessment of young adult outcomes. Journal of Counseling and Development, 95, 45-55. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12116
Gillis, H. L., Kivlighan, D. M., & Russell, K. C. (2016). Between-client and within-client engagement and outcome in a residential wilderness treatment group: An actor partner interdependence analysis. Psychotherapy, 53(4), 413–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/pst0000047
Roberts, S., Stroud, D., Hoag, M. J., & Combs, K. M. (2016). Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare: Client and treatment characteristics effects on young adult outcomes. Journal of Experiential Education, 39(3), 288-302. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825916655445
Hoag, M. J., Massey, K. M., Roberts, S., (2014). Dissecting the wilderness therapy client: Examining clinical trends, findings, and industry patterns. Journal of Experiential Education, 37(4), 382-396. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1053825914540837
Hoag, M. J., Massey, K. E., Roberts, S. D., & Logan, P. (2013). Efficacy of wilderness therapy for young adults: A first look. Journal of Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 30, 294-305. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2013.852452
Bettmann, J. E., Kouris, G. M., Anderson, I. M., & Cassleman, B. (2021). Wilderness as healing environment: Treating adolescent substance misuse in wilderness therapy. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 74(1), 249-264. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.2020.1859270
Gass, M. A., Wilson, T., Talbot, B., Tucker, A. R., Ugianskis, M. & Brennan, N. (2019). The value of outdoor behavioral healthcare for adolescent substance users with comorbid conditions. Journal of Substance Abuse: Treatment and Research, 13, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1177/1178221819870768
Uliaszek, A. A., Hamdullahpur, K., & Mills, L. (2019): Examining the effectiveness of residential treatment among adolescents with problem substance use. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 28(4), 221–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2019.1682736
Uliaszek, A. A., Al-Dajani, N., & Mills, L. (2019). Predictors of attrition from residential treatment for youths with addictive behaviors. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 28(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2018.1561574
Lewis, S. (2018). A novel investigation of substance use outcomes in substance-specific Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare programs. Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 10, 106-126.
Russell, K. C., Gillis, H. L., Law, L., & Couillard, J. (2018). A pilot study examining outcomes associated with the implementation of progress monitoring at a substance use disorder treatment program for adolescents. Child and Youth Care Forum, 47(3), 403-419. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-018-9437-2
Russell, K. C., Gillis, H. L., & Heppner, W. (2016). An examination of mindfulness-based experiences through adventure in substance use disorder treatment for young adult males: A Pilot Study. Mindfulness, 7, 320-328. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0441-4
Lewis, S. F. (2013). Examining changes in substance use and conduct problems among treatment‐seeking adolescents. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 18(1), 33-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-3588.2012.00657.x
Bettmann, J. E., Russell, K. C., & Parry, K. J. (2012). How substance abuse recovery skills, readiness to change and symptom reduction impact change processes in wilderness therapy participants. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(8), 1039-1050. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9665-2.
Russell, K. C. (2008). Adolescent substance-use treatment: Service delivery, research on effectiveness, and emerging treatment alternatives. Journal of Groups in Addiction & Recovery, 2(2-4), 68-96. https://doi.org/10.1080/15560350802081264
Russell, K. C. (2005). Preliminary results of a study examining the effects of outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment on levels of depression and substance use frequency. Journal of Experiential Education, 27, 305-307. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F105382590502700311
Aytur, S. A., Carlino, S., Bernard, F., West, K., Dobrzycki, V., & Malik, R. (2021). Social-ecological theory, substance misuse, adverse childhood experiences, and adolescent suicidal ideation: Applications for community-academic partnerships. Journal of Community Psychology, 50(1), 265-284. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22560
